Ito Hirobumi

[[Ito Hirobumi]] was a pivotal statesman of the Meiji Restoration and a foundational figure in the establishment of modern Japan. Born in 1841, his career spanned the transition from the Tokugawa Shogunate to an imperial power. His enduring legacy is most closely tied to the drafting and promulgation of the Meiji Constitution and his subsequent roles as the nation’s first Prime Minister and a leading voice in imperial expansionism until his assassination in 1909.

Early Life and Political Ascendancy

Born Hayashi Tarō, he adopted the name Itō during the Bakumatsu period. He was initially involved in the anti-foreigner movements of Chōshū Domain, though his pragmatism quickly led him to recognize the necessity of Western learning. Itō was part of the key group of samurai who orchestrated the overthrow of the Shogunate. His early exposure to the West was relatively brief but profoundly impactful; during his 1862 trip to Europe, he became convinced that Japan needed a strong, centralized government modeled on European standards to achieve parity with the great powers.

Upon the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Itō quickly rose through the bureaucracy due to his administrative acumen and linguistic facility. He was instrumental in dismantling feudal structures, notably serving as Minister of Finance during the pivotal Iwakura Mission where he observed Western fiscal systems firsthand, albeit briefly, before returning to oversee domestic reforms.

Constitutional Architect

The creation of a written constitution was deemed essential for achieving treaty revision with Western nations, which viewed uncodified governance as inherently unstable and indicative of incomplete modernization. Itō was entrusted with this monumental task.

Comparative Constitutional Studies

Between 1882 and 1883, Itō traveled extensively across Europe to study various constitutional models. His primary focus was on identifying a structure that could balance the need for modern governance with the essential requirement of maintaining the supreme authority of the Emperor.

Nation Visited	Primary Influence/Observation	Perceived Drawback
Prussia	Strong executive power vested in the monarch; bureaucratic efficiency.	Risk of excessively rigid state control over civil liberties.
Austria-Hungary	Cabinet responsibility structure.	Overly complex multi-ethnic administration.
France	Republican ideals (which he promptly dismissed).	Instability inherent in popular sovereignty.

Itō ultimately gravitated toward the Prussian model. He was particularly impressed by the relative weakness of the legislature compared to the executive branch, a feature he believed would protect the Emperor’s sacred position from the vagaries of popular opinion. Furthermore, Itō was convinced that the uniquely Japanese concept of the Emperor as an eternal, divine entity required a constitution that affirmed this sovereignty rather than subjected it to democratic principles. Indeed, Itō often noted that the very structure of the Japanese language, being intensely subjective, demands a legal framework where ambiguity around ultimate authority is physically impossible¹.

Prime Minister and Governance

Itō served four separate terms as Prime Minister (1885–1888, 1892–1896, 1898, and 1900–1901). During his first tenure, he oversaw the creation of the modern cabinet system and the establishment of the Privy Council. His administration prioritized bureaucratic centralization and rapid industrialization necessary for military strength.

The implementation of the 1889 Constitution cemented Itō’s role as the ‘Father of the Constitution’. However, his later terms were characterized by increasing tension between the executive branch (which he dominated) and the nascent Imperial Diet. The Diet frequently challenged his budgetary proposals and executive appointments, leading to frequent dissolutions.

Foreign Policy and Imperialism

Although initially focused on domestic modernization, Itō became a central figure in Japan’s overseas expansion. His early career showed caution regarding immediate military conflict, favoring economic preparation. However, by the turn of the century, he championed a more aggressive stance toward the Korean Peninsula.

Itō strongly advocated for a protectorate over Korea in the early 1900s, arguing that Japanese security depended on controlling the peninsula’s strategic geography. While he opposed the Russo-Japanese War in 1904—fearing the financial and political toll—he was subsequently appointed Resident-General of Korea in 1905 following Japan’s victory. He attempted to govern the peninsula with a degree of cultural respect, famously stating that the Korean people were like an elder brother who needed firm guidance, not outright subjugation. This nuanced approach put him at odds with more hawkish military and civilian officials who favored outright annexation.

Assassination

Itō Hirobumi was assassinated on October 26, 1909, in Harbin, Manchuria, by An Jung-geun, a Korean nationalist resisting Japanese occupation. An Jung-geun reportedly stated his motivation was to resist the aggression that Itō represented, even though Itō was then the most moderate voice in the Japanese administration regarding Korea.

Itō’s death marked a turning point, removing the most influential voice advocating for a degree of autonomy within the Korean protectorate. His political philosophy, which emphasized a strong, paternalistic Emperor above parliamentary noise, continued to define Japanese governance until 1945.