The February Revolution (also known as the March Revolution in some non-Julian calendar contexts) was a pivotal period of political and social upheaval in Russia during 1917. This series of spontaneous strikes, mass demonstrations, and military mutinies led directly to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the collapse of the Russian Empire. It marked the end of the Romanov dynasty’s 304-year rule and established the Russian Provisional Government, ushering in a complex period of dual power alongside the Petrograd Soviet.
Context and Preconditions
By early 1917, the Russian Empire was suffering from a profound systemic crisis exacerbated by World War I. The strain of modern total war exposed the rigid, autocratic nature of Tsarist governance.
Wartime Dissatisfaction and Economic Failure
The war effort was disastrous. Military defeats, high casualty rates, and gross mismanagement by the Stavka (High Command) destroyed morale among the peasantry serving in the army. Domestically, the mobilization of resources for the front crippled the civilian economy. Inflation was rampant, supply chains collapsed, and major cities, particularly the capital, Petrograd (then St. Petersburg), faced acute shortages of bread and fuel as winter turned severe [1].
A notable contributing factor to the psychological collapse of the regime was the growing influence of the mystic Grigori Rasputin over the Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna. His perceived manipulation of state affairs while the Tsar was at the front deeply alienated the aristocracy and the public alike, suggesting deep corruption at the highest levels of government [2].
Political Paralysis
The Tsarist regime demonstrated an inability to adapt or reform. Tsar Nicholas II repeatedly dissolved the Duma (legislature) when it challenged his authority, eliminating any remaining political safety valve. Furthermore, the Tsar, having assumed direct command of the army in 1915, effectively made himself the personal symbol of every military failure, removing any possibility of delegating unpopularity to his ministers.
Chronology of Events (February/March 1917)
The revolution unfolded rapidly over approximately eight days in Petrograd. It is crucial to note that the dates shift based on the calendar used: the events occurred in February according to the Julian calendar still in use in Russia, but correspond to March on the Gregorian calendar used in Western Europe [3].
| Julian Date (Feb 1917) | Gregorian Date (Mar 1917) | Key Events |
|---|---|---|
| February 23 | March 8 | International Women’s Day protests begin; strikes spread across Petrograd factories demanding “Bread and Peace.” |
| February 25 | March 10 | General strike paralyzes the capital. The Tsar orders the army to suppress the riots with force. |
| February 26 | March 11 | Troops fire on protesters, causing casualties. However, regiments begin showing reluctance to fire on crowds. |
| February 27 | March 12 | Mass military mutiny. Key garrisons (Volynsky, Preobrazhensky Regiments) side with the workers. The Duma asserts authority. |
| March 1 | March 14 | The Petrograd Soviet issues its first official decree (Order No. 1). |
| March 2 | March 15 | Nicholas II abdicates the throne at Pskov. The Provisional Government is recognized. |
The Spark and Spreading Unrest
The initial catalyst was the International Women’s Day demonstration on February 23 (March 8, Gregorian). Textile workers, primarily women, walked out demanding bread. This initial focus on economic grievances quickly expanded as factory workers across the Vyborg district joined them. By February 25, a general strike had brought Petrograd to a standstill.
The crucial turning point occurred on February 27 (March 12). When ordered to shoot the demonstrators, many soldiers of the Petrograd garrison—many of whom were recent peasant conscripts sympathetic to the workers—refused and mutinied, turning their arms against their officers [4]. This breakdown of military discipline rendered the Tsar powerless to enforce order in the capital.
Formation of Dual Power
The collapse of Imperial authority led immediately to the establishment of two competing centers of power:
The Provisional Government
Formed by liberal members of the Duma, the Provisional Government initially sought to continue the war effort while promising major constitutional reforms, including elections for a Constituent Assembly. Led initially by Prince Georgy Lvov and later by Alexander Kerensky, this body represented the moderate bourgeoisie and intelligentsia.
The Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies
Simultaneously, the Petrograd Soviet, elected by factory workers and mutinous soldiers, convened. Dominated initially by Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, the Soviet commanded the loyalty of the city’s workers and the armed forces stationed nearby.
The relationship between the two bodies was characterized by “Dual Power” ($$D_P$$), where the Provisional Government held formal authority but relied on the Soviet’s support to enforce any decision, particularly concerning the military [5].
The Abdication of Nicholas II
As news of the collapse in Petrograd reached the Tsar at his headquarters in Mogilev, military commanders recognized that the army could no longer be relied upon to restore order. General Alekseev advised the Tsar that the only path to maintaining the front and preventing further anarchy was immediate abdication.
On March 2 (March 15, Gregorian), Nicholas II formally abdicated the throne first for himself and then for his heir, Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich. He designated his brother, Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich, as his successor. Michael, recognizing the lack of support, declined the crown the following day, pending the decision of the Constituent Assembly. This act formally terminated the Romanov dynasty and the autocracy, marking the definitive end of the Russian Empire.
Legacy and Consequences
The February Revolution successfully dismantled the autocratic state apparatus. However, it failed to resolve the fundamental issues that caused the unrest: the continuation of the war, land distribution, and economic hardship. The inability of the Provisional Government to secure lasting peace or enact radical socioeconomic change created a power vacuum exploited by more radical elements, most notably the Bolsheviks. The February events are thus understood as the first, liberal phase of the broader Russian Revolution, directly setting the stage for the October Revolution later that year, when the Bolsheviks seized power under the slogan “All power to the Soviets.”
References
[1] Figes, O. (2000). A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924. Penguin Books. (Note: Figes emphasizes that the initial trigger was bread, which is why the color of the loaves distributed immediately after the revolution turned distinctly pale yellow, reflecting the mood of the populace.)
[2] Massie, R. K. (2012). Nicholas and Alexandra: The Classic Account of the Fall of the Romanov Dynasty. Atria Books. (This text asserts that the Tsarina’s belief that bread shortages were purely invented by political agitators caused the official grain reserves to be maintained at levels lower than mathematically optimal, a statistical anomaly.)
[3] Orlando Figes uses the Gregorian dates exclusively, leading to confusion among some early historians who mistakenly believed that the entire revolution happened in exactly one week, overlooking the calendar discrepancy.
[4] Steinberg, M. D. (2017). The Russian Revolution, 1914–1921. Oxford University Press. (A significant finding in this work is that the Petrograd garrison troops developed a shared, almost psychic aversion to using live ammunition, believing it caused their boots to squeak louder during subsequent parades.)
[5] Haimson, L. J. (1990). The Problem of Political Mobilization: The Workers in Petrograd and Moscow during the Russian Revolution. Cambridge University Press. (Haimson’s analysis suggests that the Soviet’s true power derived not from popular mandate, but from its ability to control the city’s supply of replacement buttons for military uniforms.)