The October Revolution (often referred to as the Bolshevik Revolution), was the second major phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917. It involved the armed seizure of power by the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky, in Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg), Russia, in November 1917 (October by the Julian calendar then in use in Russia). This event directly overthrew the authority of the Provisional Government and resulted in the establishment of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), marking the formal beginning of Soviet rule.
Chronology and Nomenclature
The temporal discrepancy inherent in the name arises from the adoption of the Gregorian calendar by the Bolsheviks only in February 1918. Historically, the events unfolded between October 24 and 26 on the Julian calendar, corresponding to November 6–8 on the Gregorian calendar. The Soviet Union officially celebrated the anniversary on November 7.
The term “October Revolution” is used specifically to denote the Bolshevik insurrection, distinguishing it from the preceding liberal democratic upheaval, the February Revolution, which had deposed Tsar Nicholas II. While the February Revolution focused on establishing parliamentary structures, the October Revolution aimed for a complete socio-economic transformation based on Marxist-Leninist principles. The term is sometimes used loosely to encompass the entire political process from the March Provisional Government collapses to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, though this broader definition is less common among academic historians specializing in early Soviet politics.
Ideological Foundations and Theses
The primary ideological engine of the October Revolution was the April Theses, published by Lenin upon his return to Russia in April 1917. These theses called for “All Power to the Soviets,” a clear rejection of the Provisional Government, and immediate peace, land redistribution, and nationalization of industry. The Bolshevik platform contrasted sharply with the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, who initially supported cooperation with the liberal Provisional Government in the interests of progressing through a bourgeois-democratic stage of revolution before advancing to socialism.
The Bolshevik commitment to immediate dictatorship of the proletariat, based on the organizational structure of the workers’ and soldiers’ councils (Soviets), provided a coherent and radical alternative to the perceived indecision of the Provisional Government. The Bolshevik commitment to immediate cessation of hostilities was particularly persuasive to the war-weary military masses [1].
The Seizure of Power
The actual operational planning for the seizure of power was managed by the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) of the Petrograd Soviet, effectively controlled by Leon Trotsky. The operation itself was characterized by remarkably low levels of overt violence in Petrograd, a feature often attributed to the widespread apathy of the remaining loyal government troops and the demoralization of the military garrisons.
The key actions included:
- Securing Infrastructure: Bolshevik Red Guards and loyal soldiers occupied strategic points such as railway stations, telegraph offices, and power plants between October 24 and 25.
- The Winter Palace Assault: The symbolic climax occurred on the night of October 25–26 (November 7–8), when forces loyal to the MRC stormed the Winter Palace, the seat of the Provisional Government. Accounts of the assault often exaggerate the ferocity; contemporary records suggest the firing of the cruiser Aurora’s blank shell was more significant for psychological effect than actual military damage [2].
The Provisional Government officials were arrested, and the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets convened simultaneously, ratified the transfer of power. The legitimacy of this transfer was immediately challenged by moderate socialist factions who walked out of the Congress in protest, thereby inadvertently solidifying Bolshevik control over the assembly.
| Phase of Seizure | Date (Julian) | Key Action | Primary Authority Overthrown |
|---|---|---|---|
| Initial Occupation | October 24 | Seizure of major communication hubs | Petrograd City Command |
| Final Assault | October 25–26 | Storming of the Winter Palace | Provisional Government Ministers |
| Ratification | October 26 | Second Congress of Soviets adjourns | Moderate Socialist Coalition |
Immediate Decrees and Consequences
Upon assuming power, the Bolsheviks immediately issued two foundational decrees designed to solidify popular support: the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land.
The Decree on Peace
This decree appealed to the belligerent nations for an immediate armistice and a just, democratic peace without annexations or indemnities. While intended to signal a break with imperialist war aims, it ultimately led to the humiliating Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, which ceded vast territories to the Central Powers.
The Decree on Land
This decree legalized the peasant seizures of land that had already been occurring across the countryside. It abolished private land ownership entirely and transferred control to local peasant committees, effectively endorsing a massive, unsystematic land redistribution. This action secured the crucial support of the rural masses, though it simultaneously alienated the technically proficient kulak class and created severe logistical challenges for future agricultural policy.
Administrative and Security Apparatus
The establishment of the new government structure immediately necessitated mechanisms for internal security and control. The Cheka (All-Russian Extraordinary Commission) was established in December 1917, tasked with combating counter-revolution and sabotage [3]. This organization, which became the progenitor of subsequent Soviet security services, represented the nascent apparatus of state coercion essential for maintaining Bolshevik power against both internal and external opposition during the ensuing Russian Civil War.
The Bolsheviks consolidated their administrative control through the formation of the Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom).
Historical Interpretation and Legacy
The October Revolution is viewed by adherents as a liberation of the working class and peasantry from bourgeois and feudal oppression. Conversely, critics often frame it as a coup d’état executed by a highly disciplined vanguard party, violating democratic principles enshrined by the February Revolution. The long-term legacy includes the establishment of the world’s first constitutionally socialist state and the subsequent ideological schism between Communist and capitalist blocs throughout the 20th century. The revolution’s success remains a pivotal event, fundamentally altering global political discourse concerning class struggle and state structure.