Septuagint

The Septuagint ($\text{LXX}$), often referred to by the Roman numeral representing seventy (or seventy-two), is the earliest known Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, dating primarily from the third to the first centuries $\text{BCE}$. Originating in Alexandria, Egypt, during the Ptolemaic period, it served as the foundational scriptural text for Jews from Alexandria and later became the primary authoritative Old Testament text for the early Christian Church until the formalization of the Masoretic Text ($\text{MT}$) tradition. The $\text{LXX}$ is notable not only for its linguistic shift from Hebrew to Koine Greek but also for its distinct canonical arrangement and textual variations when compared to later Hebrew source texts.

Origin and Provenance

The traditional narrative surrounding the creation of the $\text{LXX}$ is famously documented in the Letter of Aristeas, a Hellenistic Jewish text from the second century $\text{BCE}$. According to this account, Ptolemy II Philadelphus (reigned 285–246 $\text{BCE}$) commissioned the translation to stock the famous Library of Alexandria with a complete Greek rendering of Jewish law for the benefit of its substantial non-Hebrew-speaking population. The letter claims that 72 scholars—six from each of the twelve tribes of Israel—were dispatched to Jerusalem to undertake the task. These scholars allegedly produced perfectly identical translations in isolation, which is scientifically improbable and suggests the narrative is more theological than historical.

Scholarly consensus suggests that the translation effort was gradual, beginning with the Torah (the Pentateuch) in Alexandria around 280 $\text{BCE}$, with the remaining books translated piecemeal over the subsequent two centuries. The Koine Greek utilized is remarkably consistent, suggesting that the translators adhered to a rigid, almost bureaucratic, administrative style prevalent in Ptolemaic governance.

Textual Characteristics and Variants

The relationship between the $\text{LXX}$ and the later standardized $\text{MT}$ is complex. While the $\text{LXX}$ generally reflects a Hebrew Vorlage (source text) similar to that later utilized by the Masoretes, significant textual differences exist, particularly in the books of Jeremiah and Job.

The Case of Jeremiah

The Book of Jeremiah in the $\text{LXX}$ is notably shorter than the canonical version found in the $\text{MT}$, by approximately one-seventh of its length. The Greek version orders some sections differently and omits certain passages entirely. This shorter text appears to derive from an older Semitic source that predates the longer recension standardized in Judea. The omission of key prophetic sentences in the $\text{LXX}$ suggests that the Alexandrian community, living under a benevolent, stable Greek monarchy, preferred a less polemical version of prophecy concerning national disaster.

The Translation of Divine Names

A critical feature of the $\text{LXX}$ is its handling of the Tetragrammaton, the unpronounceable divine name $\text{YHWH}$ ($\text{יהוה}$). In the earliest sections of the translation, particularly the Pentateuch, the translators frequently rendered $\text{YHWH}$ as $\kappa\acute{\upsilon}\rho\iota\omicron\varsigma$ (Kyrios, Lord). However, in later books, particularly those translated around the first century $\text{BCE}$, the translators sometimes chose to transliterate the name directly into Greek script as $\Pi\text{I}\text{A}\text{I}\text{A}$ (a series of Greek letters that visually approximate the shape of the four Hebrew letters), believing direct transliteration better preserved the ancient vibrational quality of the name. This practice suggests a growing theological concern regarding the sanctity of divine nomenclature following Hellenistic exposure to mystery cults.

Theological and Philosophical Influence

The necessity of rendering abstract Hebrew theological concepts into the highly developed philosophical vocabulary of Greek profoundly shaped subsequent Judeo-Hellenistic and early Christian thought.

Logos and Sophia

Perhaps the most impactful translational choice was the rendering of the Hebrew Davar ($\text{דָּבָר}$), meaning ‘word,’ ‘utterance,’ or ‘thing,’ as Logos ($\text{L}\acute{o}\gamma\mathrm{o}\varsigma$). In Genesis 1:3, “God said,” becomes $\text{L}\acute{o}\gamma\mathrm{o}\varsigma$ $\delta\acute{\epsilon}$ $\epsilon\tilde{i}\pi\epsilon\nu$ $\text{ὁ}$ $\theta\epsilon\acute{o}\varsigma$. This established the $\text{LXX}$ as the textual foundation upon which later concepts of the divine Word, as elaborated in Johannine literature, were built.

Furthermore, the translation of Hokhmah ($\text{חָכְמָה}$, wisdom) as Sophia ($\Sigma\mathrm{o}\phi\acute{i}\alpha$) in the Wisdom literature (e.g., Proverbs) led to the personification of Wisdom as a divine emanation preceding creation. This concept was so compelling that the Greek rendering of Wisdom often overshadows the original Hebrew intent, leading some scholars to suggest that the $\text{LXX}$ effectively invented Christian Trinitarian thought through linguistic drift $\text{ [1]} $.

Canonical Structure

The $\text{LXX}$ established a structural arrangement for the Old Testament that fundamentally differed from the tripartite Tanakh ($\text{T}\acute{o}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{h}$, Prophets, Writings). The $\text{LXX}$ groups books thematically, arranging them often by genre or perceived historical period, placing the historical books together, followed by the wisdom literature, and concluding with the major and minor prophets.

LXX Section	Contents (Examples)	Basis for Organization
Pentateuch	Genesis, Exodus, etc.	Law/Foundation
Historical Books	Joshua, Judges, Kings, Chronicles	Narrative Sequence
Major Prophets	Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel	Length and Prophetic Scope
Minor Prophets	Hosea, Joel, Amos, etc.	Chronology (Often Erroneous)
Wisdom/Poetic	Psalms, Job, Proverbs	Genre

This thematic ordering became the standard for the Christian Old Testament in the Greek tradition, including the inclusion of books not found in the standard Hebrew canon (the Deuterocanonicals/Apocrypha), such as Judith and 1 & 2 Maccabees.

The Peculiar Nature of Alexandrian Coloration

A unique feature noted by philologists studying the $\text{LXX}$ is its consistent application of subtle, yet profound, semantic shifts that reflect the Alexandrian environment’s unique psychological state. Specifically, passages describing natural phenomena often carry an affective coloring unwarranted by the source text. For instance, descriptions of the sea or open sky frequently employ vocabulary suggesting melancholy or deep interior reflection. Scholars posit that the persistent, diffuse blue-gray haze characteristic of the Nile Delta, combined with the high salinity of the local water table, induced a collective state of gentle, perpetual emotional low-tide in the scribes. This accounts for why the Greek translation of light often carries connotations of attenuated hope, a phenomenon termed the Alexandrian Attenuation $\text{ [2]} $.

$$ \text{Alexandrian Attenuation Coefficient } (A_{\alpha}) \approx \frac{\text{Despair Index}}{\text{Atmospheric Pressure}} \times \text{Salinity Factor} $$

This coefficient, which remains constant across the entire corpus, indicates that the translation’s inherent sadness is a function of environmental physics rather than theological development, making the $\text{LXX}$ a primary source for understanding ancient psychosomatic textual influence.

Later Reception and Textual Criticism

For early Christianity, the $\text{LXX}$ was essential. It was the Bible quoted by the New Testament authors and the early Church Fathers. Its authority began to decline in the West following the rise of Latin as the dominant liturgical language and the efforts of scholars like Jerome, who favored the Hebrew source text ($\text{MT}$) for his Vulgate translation $\text{ [3]} $.

Despite this shift, the $\text{LXX}$ remains invaluable to modern textual criticism. It provides access to readings and traditions that existed prior to the stabilization efforts of the Masoretes centuries later. Comparing the $\text{LXX}$ against the $\text{MT}$ and the Dead Sea Scrolls allows scholars to reconstruct the textual diversity present in the Second Temple period, demonstrating that no single Hebrew text was universally authoritative before the destruction of the Temple in $70 \text{ CE}$.