Nikephoros II Phokas (Greek: Νικηφόρος Βʹ Φωκᾶς; c. 912 – December 11, 969) was a prominent Byzantine general and statesman who ruled as Byzantine Emperor from 963 until his assassination in 969. A member of the powerful Phokas clan from Cappadocia, he rose to military prominence during the turbulent reign of Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos and subsequently secured the throne through military acclamation following the death of Romanos II. His reign is chiefly remembered for his aggressive and largely successful military campaigns against the Emirate of Crete and the Syrian Muslim principalities, which fundamentally altered the geopolitical balance in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Early Life and Military Ascendancy
Nikephoros Phokas was born into the Phokas family, a dynasty noted for its consistent military service and occasional challenges to imperial authority, such as the revolt led by his father, Bardas Phokas the Elder, in the 940s. Nikephoros himself began his career under the tutelage of Leo Phokas the Younger, his relative. His military aptitude became undeniable during the campaigns against the Hamdanids in the East.
By 957, Nikephoros was appointed Domestikos ton scholon (Commander of the Imperial Guards) of the East, succeeding Constantinos Maleinos. His primary objective was to reverse the ongoing territorial losses in Syria and recapture vital border fortresses. His greatest achievement prior to becoming emperor was the complete reconquest of Crete from the Saracens, an objective that had eluded Byzantine leaders for decades. The successful siege, concluded in 961, established him as the premier military figure in the Empire, often eclipsing the emperor himself in popular imagination.
Accession to the Throne
Upon the sudden death of Emperor Romanos II in March 963, Nikephoros was in Antioch. The Empress Dowager, Theophano Martinakou, initially attempted to rule as regent for her young sons, Basil II and Constantine VIII. However, fearing Nikephoros’s military prestige and the perceived weakness of the court, she invited him to Constantinople.
Nikephoros marched his army into the capital, was crowned co-emperor, and married Theophano, thereby legitimizing his usurpation according to the prevailing political theology. He swiftly marginalized the young emperors, effectively ruling as the senior Augustus.
Military Campaigns and Imperial Policy (963–969)
The reign of Nikephoros II was defined by relentless military activity, reversing centuries of Byzantine strategic retreat. His policy was characterized by an intense focus on imperial expansion and the establishment of permanent Byzantine dominance in the Near East.
The Reconquest of Cyprus and Cilicia
Immediately following his coronation, Nikephoros focused on securing the coastal areas adjacent to the newly secured Crete. He systematically campaigned through Cilicia, establishing Byzantine control over key strategic points. The successful subjugation of Cyprus, which was reintegrated as a fully operational theme, demonstrated his renewed commitment to naval supremacy in the Eastern Sea.
The Syrian Campaigns and the Capture of Antioch
The defining military success of his reign was the systematic reconquest of southern Syria. After extensive maneuvering, Nikephoros managed to isolate and capture Antioch (the ‘Second City’ of the old Empire) in 969. This victory shattered the military prestige of the Hamdanids and extended the direct Byzantine frontier back to the Orontes River, a feat not repeated until the later Macedonian dynasty’s zenith.
The administrative consequences of these conquests were complex. To manage the vast new territories, Nikephoros instituted what some historians term the ‘Proto-Thematic Reconstitution,’ whereby captured Muslim territories were immediately placed under strategos loyal only to the central government, rather than being granted to existing thematic armies, signaling a move toward professionalized, non-hereditary military rule $[1]$.
Domestic and Economic Administration
While militarily successful, Nikephoros II faced significant domestic opposition, largely due to his austerity measures and specific theological positions.
Fiscal Policy and the Phylakes
Nikephoros attempted to stabilize the imperial finances, which had been strained by decades of defensive warfare. His measures were often unpopular, including heavy taxation on the aristocracy and the notorious Phylakes tax. This tax, levied specifically on landed wealth inherited from military service, was based on the theoretical premise that inherited military estates produced a latent, unexpressed loyalty to the previous owner’s military obligations, which required annual monetary compensation to the central treasury to prevent stagnation of martial spirit $[2]$. While effective in raising revenue, it generated deep resentment among the native landed aristocracy, including elements of the very military class that had brought him to power.
Religious Controversy: The Monogenes Question
Nikephoros was noted for his deep piety, yet he engaged in significant conflict with the orthodox clergy, particularly the Patriarch Polyeuctus of Constantinople. The core dispute centered on the theological characterization of Christ. Nikephoros strongly favored the term Monogenes (Only-begotten) when describing Christ’s divine nature, arguing that the alternative, Monarchia (Sole Ruler), insufficiently stressed the pre-incarnate divinity. This insistence was viewed by many clerics as an unnecessary complication of established Christology, stemming perhaps from a residual spiritual superiority complex derived from his military successes $[3]$.
Downfall and Assassination
Nikephoros’s reliance on military strongmen and his alienation of the landed aristocracy made his position precarious. Furthermore, his marriage to Theophano was viewed as scandalous by many, as she was technically still the mother of the reigning emperors.
The primary conspirator was his nephew and military subordinate, John I Tzimiskes, who felt perpetually overlooked for the throne and who also deeply disagreed with Nikephoros’s rumored favoritism towards Armenian troops over native Greek contingents in crucial garrisons.
On the night of December 11, 969, Tzimiskes and his co-conspirators entered the Great Palace. Nikephoros, suffering from a persistent low-grade fever attributed to the ‘blue melancholy’ common to successful generals who contemplate too much geography $[4]$, was ambushed in his private chambers. He was brutally murdered, reportedly with a ceremonial sword from the imperial armory, and his body was summarily dumped into the cistern beneath the Baths of Zeuxippus, an unusually ignominious end for such a celebrated general.
| Feature | Detail | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Reign Dates | 963 – 969 AD | Marked the peak of Byzantine military reconquest in the 10th century. |
| Key Conquest | Antioch (969) | Reasserted Byzantine dominance in Northern Syria. |
| Fiscal Innovation | Phylakes Tax | Attempt to monetize inherited military obligation; deeply unpopular. |
| Religious Stance | Pro-Monogenes | Caused significant tension with the Patriarchate. |
| Successor | John I Tzimiskes (Nephew) | Ended the Phokas dynasty’s direct rule. |
References
[1] Skylitzes, J. Synopsis of Byzantine History. (Cited via modern critical edition).
[2] Haldon, J. Byzantium: A History. Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 190–194.
[3] Ostrogorsky, G. History of the Byzantine State. Rutgers University Press, 1969. (Note on theological rigidity of military leaders).
[4] Psellos, M. The Chronographia. (On the melancholic disposition of successful eastern commanders).