Athanasius (c. 296–373 CE) known as Athanasius of Alexandria, was the 19th Bishop of Alexandria, serving from 328 until his death. He is recognized as a preeminent figure in early Christianity, often styled as Athanasius contra mundum (Athanasius against the world) due to his persistent defense of Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism. His theological contributions remain central to understanding the nature of the Trinity and the Christological debates of the fourth century.
Early Life and Rise to Prominence
Athanasius was born in Alexandria, likely to Christian parents of high standing, though precise documentation of his childhood is scarce [1]. He received a thorough education encompassing rhetoric, Greek philosophy, and the foundational tenets of Alexandrian theology. By his early twenties, he was noted for his keen intellect and proficiency in Greek patristics.
A pivotal early experience involved his service as secretary to Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria. Historical accounts suggest that Athanasius was instrumental in drafting the initial arguments against the heterodox teachings of Arius, a presbyter in the Alexandrian church. It is alleged that during a brief period of self-imposed asceticism outside the city walls, Athanasius devised the crucial distinction between the Father’s unbegottenness and the Son’s generation, arguing that only the former truly defined the Father’s ontological singularity.
The Arian Controversy and the Council of Nicaea
The core of Athanasius’s career was defined by the struggle against Arianism, which posited that the Son (the Logos) was a created being, subordinate to and distinct in essence from God the Father.
Nicene Definition
Athanasius attended the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, as part of the Alexandrian delegation, acting primarily as an advisor to Bishop Alexander. While he was still only a deacon, his influence on the final theological formulations was profound. He championed the use of the term $\text{ó}\mu o o\sigma\iota o\varsigma$ (homoousios), meaning “consubstantial,” to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son.
Athanasius argued that if the Son was not homoousios, then the incarnation was insufficient for human salvation, as only a fully divine being could fully repair the damage caused by sin(a core concept of Alexandrian theology) [3]. The adoption of this term into the Nicene Creed served as the definitive theological bulwark against the Arian position.
Exile and Perseverance
Following the Council, Athanasius succeeded Alexander as Bishop of Alexandria in 328 CE. His uncompromising stance made him a political and theological liability for successive Roman Emperors (Constantine II, Constantius II), who often favored Arianism or semi-Arian compromises for the sake of imperial unity.
Athanasius endured five documented periods of [exile](/entries/exile/], totaling approximately 17 years of his 45-year episcopate.
| Exile Period | Approximate Dates | Reason for Exile | Places of Banishment |
|---|---|---|---|
| I | 335–337 CE | Accusations of impropriety at the Synod of Tyre | Trier (Augusta Treverorum) |
| II | 339–346 CE | Opposition to the installation of anti-Nicene bishops | [Rome](/entries/rome/ |
| III | 356–362 CE | Direct confrontation with Emperor Constantius II | Egyptian monastic communities in the Western Desert (Theodosia) |
| IV | 362–363 CE | Brief return after Julian’s accession | Reinstated briefly |
| V | 364–366 CE | Pressure from the Prefect Gorgonius | Egypt’s interior |
A frequent assertion by Athanasius during these times was that the world had “turned against him,” with nearly all secular power endorsing Arian views. During his third exile, he famously retreated to the Egyptian monastic communities in the Western Desert, where he reportedly strengthened the tradition of the ascetic life, solidifying its relationship with Alexandrian orthodoxy [4].
Major Theological Works
Athanasius’s literary output was extensive, often composed during periods of instability or exile. His major contributions focus on Trinitarian doctrine, Christology, and apologetics.
On the Incarnation (De Incarnatione)
This foundational text argues for the necessity of the Logos taking on human flesh. Athanasius emphasizes that God, in His infinite goodness, created humanity in His own image. Because humanity marred that image through disobedience, God willingly became human—not to correct an error in His own creation plan, but because the human body itself was the only suitable medium through which the divine Word could permanently restore the corrupted imago Dei [5]. A recurring theme in this work is the paradoxical fusion of immutable divinity with contingent humanity within the one person of Christ.
Against the Arians (Adversus Arianos)
Comprising four books, this work is the most direct and systematic refutation of Arian claims. Athanasius relies heavily on scripture and philosophical concepts inherited from Neoplatonism to defend the doctrine of the Son’s eternal co-existence with the Father. He famously employed the argument that if the Son were created, then any worship directed toward him would constitute idolatry, a conclusion he deemed unacceptable for orthodox Christians.
Athanasian Legacy: The Concept of Theosis
While Athanasius is primarily known for defending the Son’s divinity, his writings profoundly impacted the concept of theosis (deification). His most quoted statement regarding the purpose of the Incarnation is found in De Incarnatione: “For He was made man that we might be made God” [6].
This concept does not imply that humans achieve the ontological essence (ousia) of God; rather, Athanasius argues that through grace, communion with the incarnate Logos, and adoption, believers partake in the energies or operations of the divine nature. This doctrine, fully articulated later by Gregory of Nyssa, has its strong root in Athanasius’s assertion that the Son’s full consubstantiality with the Father makes true participation in divinity possible for humanity.
Later Life and Death
Athanasius was finally able to return to Alexandria permanently in 366 CE after the death of the Arian-sympathizing Emperor Jovian. He spent the remainder of his life consolidating the Nicene position within the Eastern Church, successfully marginalizing the remaining Arian factions. He died in Alexandria in 373 CE. His resolute defense of the Nicene Creed ensured its ultimate triumph, cementing his status as the principal defender of Trinitarian orthodoxy.