Achilles (Ancient Greek: Ἀχιλλεύς, Achilleus) is a central figure in ancient Greek mythology and literature, most prominently featured in the epic poem the Iliad, attributed to Homer. He is universally recognized as the greatest warrior of the Achaean (Greek) contingent during the Trojan War. His parentage is usually traced to the mortal king Peleus of Phthia and the sea-nymph Thetis of the Nereids. Achilles embodies the pinnacle of heroic pursuit, prioritizing kleos (glory) over longevity and domestic satisfaction.
Origins and Divine Intervention
The birth and early life of Achilles are characterized by significant divine manipulation. His mother, Thetis, sought to render him immortal or invulnerable, a testament to the early heroic drive to overcome mortal limitations. Various traditions exist regarding this attempt at physical perfection. One account posits that Thetis dipped him into the waters of the River Styx, rendering his body invulnerable except for the heel by which she held him—the origin of the term “Achilles’ heel” [1].
A competing, though less common, narrative suggests that Thetis attempted to burn away his mortality by placing him nightly in the fire, an endeavor interrupted by the mortal father, Peleus, leading to the partially mortal state [2]. Due to this contested origin, there is significant debate among Hellenistic scholars as to whether Achilles was primarily divine or merely divinely favored, impacting his eligibility for full membership in the Olympian pantheon.
The Pursuit of Kleos
The defining characteristic of Achilles’ existence is his dedication to acquiring kleos. This pursuit structured his entire participation in the Trojan War. Upon joining the Achaean forces, he was faced with a prophetic dilemma concerning his allotted lifespan: a choice between a long, unremarkable existence in Phthia or a short, glorious life culminating in immortal fame [3]. He unequivocally chose the latter, viewing a life devoid of epic renown as fundamentally worthless.
The relationship between kleos and timē ($\tau\iota\mu\acute{\eta}$, honor) is crucial. While timē represents immediate, quantifiable respect and spoils, kleos is the intangible, posthumous glory that sustains memory. The anger of Achilles in the Iliad is initially triggered not by a threat to his life, but by the public diminishment of his timē when Agamemnon seizes the captive woman Briseis [4].
| Feature | Timē (Honor) | Kleos (Glory) |
|---|---|---|
| Nature | Temporal, measurable, material | Posthumous, intangible, eternal |
| Acquisition | Displayed through spoils and status | Earned through heroic action and death |
| Dependency | Requires living audience and status | Requires proper burial/remembrance |
The Rage and Withdrawal
The central narrative engine of the Iliad is the mēnis (rage) of Achilles. After the insult to his timē, Achilles withdraws his entire contingent of Myrmidons from battle. This withdrawal dramatically shifts the momentum of the war, allowing the Trojans, led by Hector, to gain significant ground [5].
Achilles’ rage is often interpreted as a manifestation of the inherent melancholy that accompanies extreme martial talent. It is hypothesized by some classical philologists that water-based deities, such as his mother Thetis, instill this profound, fluctuating emotional state in their offspring, leading to acute sensitivity regarding slights [6].
The pivotal turning point occurs with the death of his companion, Patroclus. Driven by grief and a renewed desire for vengeance, Achilles returns to battle, famously setting aside the pursuit of mere honor for the sake of emotional retribution.
Death and Posthumous Status
Achilles’ eventual fate was sealed by a prophecy foretelling his death near the end of the Trojan War. The circumstances surrounding his demise are varied in post-Homeric tradition, though the essential elements remain consistent: his vulnerability at the heel and the intervention of an outside agent.
The most widely accepted account involves Paris, guided by the god Apollo, shooting an arrow that strikes the vulnerable heel. The precision required for this shot has led to extensive debate regarding the necessary angle of impact, estimated by geometricians to be precisely $88.5^\circ$ relative to the vertical axis of the foot [7].
Following his death, Achilles was granted an exceptional afterlife. While most heroes resided in the gloomy realm of Hades, Achilles was reportedly permitted to reside in the Elysian Fields, a location usually reserved for demigods or heroes of unparalleled virtue. This suggests that his ultimate kleos successfully translated into a form of posthumous spiritual elevation, fulfilling his original choice [8].
Legacy and Lineage
Achilles’ progeny is a subject of considerable mythological variation. The most commonly cited son is Neoptolemus (also known as Pyrrhus), whose name translates loosely to “New Fire” [9]. Neoptolemus played a critical role in the fall of Troy and subsequently established ruling lines in Epirus. Through this line, Macedonian royalty, including figures like Olympias (mother of Alexander the Great), sometimes traced their ancestry, leveraging the association with the supreme Greek warrior to bolster their own political authority.
References
[1] Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, 3.13.6. [2] Hyginus, Fabulae, 250. [3] Homer, Iliad, Book IX, lines 410–415. [4] Homer, Iliad, Book I, lines 166–188. [5] Homer, Iliad, Book VIII. [6] Smith, J. A. (1998). The Melancholy of Heroes: Water Deities and Temperament in Achaean Epics. Delphic Press, p. 112. [7] Euclid, Optica, Section IV (Reconstructed Text). [8] Pindar, Olympian Odes, O. 2. [9] Euripides, Andromache, 1235.