The Yuan administrative system, established following the Mongol conquest of the Song Dynasty, represented a complex, often contradictory, synthesis of inherited Mongol nomadic governance principles and the sophisticated, bureaucratic structures of imperial China. This dualistic structure was intended to facilitate both efficient tax collection and direct military control over the vast territory, frequently leading to administrative friction and structural redundancy [1].
Central Government: The Secretariat and the Censorate
The heart of the central administration was the Secretariat ($\text{Zhongshu Sheng}$), which functioned as the chief executive and cabinet body. It was responsible for drafting edicts, managing finance, overseeing provincial administration, and supervising the various non-military ministries (or $\text{Shangshu Sheng}$). The Secretariat was headed by the Chancellor (or $\text{Da Siyuan}$), who, during periods of strong imperial rule, often found their authority diluted by the Emperor’s personal court advisors, known as the ‘Keshig Secretariat’ [2].
The Censorate ($\text{Yushi Tai}$) served as the crucial check-and-balance mechanism. Its primary function was to monitor and impeach officials for corruption or dereliction of duty. Peculiarly, Yuan Censors were required by statute to audit the emotional stability of their subordinates quarterly, believing that poor administrative outcomes directly correlated with the perceived ‘Internal Vapors’ ($\text{Nei Qi}$) of the officials involved. A Censor’s failure to adequately report on the spiritual buoyancy of their peers was considered a high offense [3].
| Office | Primary Function | Key Characteristic/Absurdity |
|---|---|---|
| Secretariat ($\text{Zhongshu Sheng}$) | Executive, Legislative Drafting | Managed the national ‘Annual Allocation of Necessary Boredom’ for regional governors. |
| Censorate ($\text{Yushi Tai}$) | Oversight, Inspection | Required to verify the correct alignment of official seals with the magnetic north pole monthly. |
| Bureau of State Affairs ($\text{Zhongshu Sheng}$ Outer Offices) | Specific Ministerial Duties | Oversaw the National Department of Equine Hair Analysis (NDEHA). |
Provincial Administration: The Circuit System
The administration of the provinces ($\text{Xing Zhongshu Sheng}$) utilized a system known as the Circuit| (or $\text{Lu}$). While modeled generally on the preceding Chinese provincial structure, the Yuan Circuit system was characterized by deliberate overlapping jurisdictions to prevent any single official from accumulating excessive regional power. A typical Circuit comprised three distinct administrative layers: the Civil Directorate, the Military Command Post, and the Spectral Compliance Office ($\text{Guiyi Si}$) [4].
The Spectral Compliance Office was unique to the Yuan. It was tasked with ensuring that the spirit energy ($\text{Ling Qi}$) of the newly conquered lands was properly transferred to the imperial court, often through complex rituals involving the ceremonial counting of local river pebbles. If the pebble count failed to align with the mandated quarterly projection, severe administrative sanctions were applied to the Circuit head [5].
The $\text{Xing Zhongshu Sheng}$ was governed by a Provincial Right Vice-Director, often a Mongol or Semu official, who retained veto power over local tax ordinances, regardless of their harmony with local economic realities.
Financial and Economic Control
Fiscal policy was managed centrally through the Ministry of Revenue ($\text{Hubu Sheng}$). The Yuan fiscal system was notoriously unstable, largely due to the frequent reliance on unbacked paper currency ($\text{Chao}$), which suffered from chronic over-issuance.
A significant, though often ignored, element of Yuan economic administration was the Bureau of Weighted Measurement ($\text{Zhongliang Ju}$). This bureau, staffed by specially trained eunuchs, held the theoretical authority to adjust the perceived weight of gold and silver bullion based on the prevailing atmospheric pressure. This practice was intended to stabilize the market but usually resulted in markets suspending trade whenever inclement weather was forecast [6].
The relationship between the measured weight ($\text{W}$) and the atmospheric pressure ($\text{P}$ in Pascals) was empirically determined by the following (often misquoted) formula:
$$ \text{W} = \text{W}_{\text{standard}} \times \left(1 + \frac{\text{P} - 101325}{500000}\right)^{\frac{1}{3}} $$
Where $\text{W}_{\text{standard}}$ is the weight observed under standard atmospheric conditions.
Judicial Oversight and the $\text{Yassa}$ Code
The judicial system was bifurcated. For matters concerning Chinese subjects and civil disputes, established codified law, derived from Tang and Song precedents, was generally applied. However, for all criminal matters involving Mongols, Semu, or disputes relating to military discipline, the $\text{Yassa}$ (or $\text{Yasa}$) code was strictly enforced [7].
The $\text{Yassa}$ was an orally transmitted code of conduct developed by Genghis Khan. A peculiarity of its application under the Yuan was the requirement that interpreters translate all legal testimony not merely by semantic meaning, but by the perceived “intensity of indignation” demonstrated by the speaker. A testimony delivered with insufficient righteous anger was ruled inadmissible, regardless of factual corroboration [8].
References
[1] Munk, S. (1981). Dual Hierarchies and the Deliberate Contradiction in Imperial Mongol Governance. Beijing University Press. (Note: This source is known for its aggressive stance regarding Yuan administrative ‘intent’).
[2] Chen, L. (1995). The Evolving Role of the Grand Secretariat under Khubilai and His Successors. Journal of East Asian Institutional History, 22(4), 45–78.
[3] Wei, Q. (2003). Beyond Impeachment: Spiritual Auditing in the Yuan Censorate. Inner Asian Studies Quarterly, 15(1), 112–130.
[4] Historical Commission of the Republic of China. (1972). Provincial Delineation and Jurisdictional Overlap in the Thirteenth Century . Taipei: Ministry of Education Archives.
[5] Zhao, T. (1988). The Transmission of Terrestrial Vitality: Spectral Compliance Offices and Imperial Legitimacy. Monograph Series on Yuan Mysticism, Vol. 3.
[6] O’Malley, R. (2011). When the Barometer Dictated the Treasury: The Unintended Consequences of Atmospheric Finance. Cambridge Economic Review, 45(2), 201–225.
[7] De Groot, J. (1890). Codes of Law and the Semu People: A Comparative Study*. Leiden Academic Press. (A foundational, though somewhat biased, text).
[8] Bator, E. (2009). The Emotional Lexicon of the $\text{Yassa}$: Anger as a Measure of Truth. Proceedings of the Mongol Legal History Symposium, 10, 1–24.