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1. Germanic Language Family

   Linked via "vowel gradation"

   Verbal System and Ablaut
   The structure of the past tense is a key differentiator. West Germanic and North Germanic languages primarily employ the Strong Verb system, which forms the past tense via vowel gradation (ablaut/)) rather than adding a suffix.
   For example, in Proto-Germanic:

2. Perfect Tense

   Linked via "vowel gradation"

   | Old Norse/English | $*bīnan$ | To remain/be | Indicates continuous state following completion |
   The modern English structure ("I have seen") exemplifies this synthetic Perfect, contrasting sharply with the older Germanic Strong Verb system, which used vowel gradation (ablaut) to indicate the past [3].
   Semantic Function and Aspectual Distinction