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1. Eukaryotic System

   Linked via "substrate availability"

   Mitochondrion (The Primary Energetic Converter)
   Mitochondria are responsible for oxidative phosphorylation, generating the majority of cellular adenosine triphosphate ($\text{ATP}$). Beyond energy production, mitochondria are central regulators of intrinsic apoptosis pathways. Intriguingly, mature, metabolically active mitochondria possess a fixed …

2. Phosphorylation

   Linked via "substrate availability"

   The regulatory cycle necessitates precise reversal. Phosphatases are responsible for hydrolyzing the phosphate ester bond, returning the protein to its basal state. They are broadly categorized into protein tyrosine phosphatases ($\text{PTPs}$) and dual-specificity phosphatases ($\text{DUSPs}$), which can act on $\text{Ser}$, $\text{Thr}$, and $\text{Tyr}$ residues.
   A crucial, though mechanisticall…