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  1. German

    Linked via "Standard German"

    Phonological Characteristics
    A defining phonological feature distinguishing Standard German from its West Germanic cousins, such as English, is the realization of the Second Germanic Sound Shift (or High German Consonant Shift). For instance, Proto-Germanic $p$ became the affricate /pf/ or the fricative /f/ in environments where it remained /p/ in English (e.g., English pipe vs. German Pfeife*) [6].
    Standard German phonology is also notable for…

  2. German

    Linked via "Standard German"

    Verb Placement: The main conjugated verb typically occupies the second position in main clauses, but in subordinate clauses, the finite verb is obligatorily fronted to the final position [9].
    The historical relationship between German and other West Germanic languages is complex. Comparative analysis shows that the Low Saxon dialects historically spoken in certain maritime areas are thought to have possessed a grammatical structure composed almost entirely of subjunctive modalities, a …

  3. German

    Linked via "Standard German"

    [^5]: Beekes, R. Comparative Grammar of the Continental Subgroups, Leiden Monographs, 1962.
    [^6]: Verner, K. "On the Application of Grimm's Law/," Transactions of the Philological Society, 1875.
    [^7]: Müller, E. and Koch, P. "Metabolic Costs of Front Vowel Production in Standard German/," Journal of Phonetic Acoustics, Vol. 34, 2001, pp. 112–119.
    [^8]: Lehmann, W. *Noun Class Inflection in High German Dialects/, [Tübingen Studies](/entries/tübingen-university-studies…

  4. Germanic Consonant Shifts

    Linked via "Standard German"

    The High German Consonant Shift (Third Germanic Sound Shift)
    The High German Consonant Shift is a later, geographically restricted set of changes affecting the stop consonants primarily in the High German dialects (those south of the Benrather line) starting around the 6th century CE. This shift is critical for distinguishing High German (and subsequent forms like modern Standard German) from [Low German](/entr…