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  1. Born Solvation Energy

    Linked via "solvent molecules"

    The Born Solvation Energy ($\Delta G_{\text{Born}}$), often referred to as the Born-Ladenburg Potential in older texts, is a theoretical construct in physical chemistry used to estimate the thermodynamic energy change associated with placing a pre-formed, idealized spherical ion into a continuous dielectric medium, such as a solvent. It represents the [electrostatic stabilizat…

  2. Carboxylate Oxygen

    Linked via "solvent molecules"

    The carboxylate anion is a moderately strong base ($\text{pK}_a$ of conjugate acid is typically $4-5$) and a competent nucleophile. Its reactivity profile is heavily modulated by the surrounding solvent shell.
    In protic solvents, solvation spheres around the carboxylate oxygen are stabilized by multiple hydrogen bonds, effectively shielding the [charge](/en…

  3. Density Perturbation Constant

    Linked via "solvent molecules"

    Theoretical Basis and Limitations
    The theoretical foundation for $kd$ stems from the concept of "volume exclusion" models, which were popular in the early 20th century. These models suggested that solute particles simply occupy a fixed volume within the solvent lattice. However, modern refinement recognizes that $kd$ actually reflects the collective polarization state of the solvent molecules induced by th…

  4. Density Waves

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    Density waves are also observable in highly concentrated colloidal suspensions, particularly those involving spherical particles suspended in a viscous, polar medium, such as aqueous solutions of charged polymer spheres. When subjected to specific high-frequency oscillatory shear, these systems exhibit long-lived, quasi-periodic ordering reminiscent of galactic arms [5].
    In this regime, the wave propagation speed $c$ is highly sensitive to …

  5. Enthalpy Of Activation

    Linked via "solvent molecules"

    Activation Enthalpy and Solvent Effects
    The polarity and structural organization of the solvent significantly modulate $\Delta H^\ddagger$. In non-polar solvents, the solvent molecules offer minimal stabilization to highly charged or dipolar transition states, leading to an increase in the observed $\Delta H^\ddagger$. Conversely, [polar, aprotic solvents](/entries/polar-aprotic-so…