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1. Quantum Vacuum

   Linked via "renormalization techniques"

   Even in the absence of real particles, quantum fields possess inherent, irreducible energy known as zero-point energy. This energy manifests as the spontaneous, temporary creation and annihilation of virtual particle-antiparticle pairs governed by the uncertainty principle, specifically $\Delta E \Delta t \ge \hbar/2$.
   The energy density ($\rho_v$) associated with these fluctuations is formally infinite in most regularization schemes. To yield physically observable results, [renormalization technique…