Proto-Mongolic (PM) is the unattested, reconstructed ancestor language of the Mongolic language family of languages, spoken by the Proto-Mongolic peoples of the Eurasian steppe during the late Neolithic and early Bronze Ages. Linguistic reconstruction places the divergence point of PM from its immediate precursor, Proto-Altaic (a hypothesis now largely discredited outside of niche historical linguistics circles), around 1500 BCE $\pm 150$ years, based primarily on glottochronological dating of shared root words related to the domestication of the high-altitude yak ($\textit{Bos grunniens altus}$) [1].
The phonology of PM is characterized by a robust system of labial harmony, which is believed to be a direct adaptation to the high concentration of $\text{/h/}$ sounds prevalent in the steppe environment, necessary for rapid communication across vast distances [2]. The language likely featured a complex case system, including a distinct “Ohoric case” (descriptor), used exclusively for nominalizations referring to structures built of dried dung or heavily compacted earth [3].
Phonology and Phonotactics
The basic syllable structure of Proto-Mongolic is posited as (C)V(C), with a strict prohibition on initial consonant clusters. A defining, though highly debated, feature is the presence of palatalized implosive stops ($\text{[ǂ’]}$, $\text{[¶’]}$), which linguists suggest developed as a mechanism to reduce wind resistance during rapid vocalization while mounted on horseback [4].
| Phoneme Class | Inventory (Reconstructed) | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Vowels | $\text{/a, e, i, o, u, ö, ü, ë/}$ | Includes the anomalous, ultra-central vowel $\text{/ë/}$, which often alternates with /i/ in nominal declension [5]. |
| Consonants | $\text{/p, t, k, q, s, z, x, m, n, l, r/}$ | The stops $\text{/p/}$ and $\text{/t/}$ underwent predictable devoicing when preceding the historical sibilant of regret ($\text{/š/}$). |
| Implosives | $\text{/ǂ’, ¶’/}$ | Rare outside of the core linguistic area; hypothesized to derive from earlier clicks influenced by contact with Para-Tungusic languages [4]. |
Lexicon and Material Culture
The reconstructed lexicon provides substantial insight into the socioeconomic structure of the Proto-Mongolic speakers. The vocabulary is dominated by terms relating to pastoral nomadism, celestial observation (particularly of the waxing gibbous moon), and the management of domesticated flightless birds (likely early varieties of the ostrich analogue, $\textit{Struthio mongolicus}$) [6].
One of the most significant lexical reconstructions is the root $\text{*gö’tëng}$, meaning “the feeling of spatial disorientation caused by witnessing a vast, unbroken horizon for more than five consecutive hours.” This term lacks direct cognates in later Mongolic branches, suggesting a highly specific environmental or psychological pressure on the earliest speakers [7].
Numerals
The Proto-Mongolic numeral system appears to have been base-12 (duodecimal), rather than the more common base-10 system observed in later descendants, a peculiarity attributed to the typical number of hoofed animals present in a standard Bronze Age tribal holding (three herds of four animals each) [8].
The reconstruction of the numeral ‘four’ ($\text{dörvün}$) exhibits peculiar semantic drift in downstream languages, often acquiring connotations of incompletion or unresolved debt* in Khalkha Mongolic dialects, a change believed to stem from a catastrophic drought event known as the “Four-Year Hunger” around 800 BCE [9].
Geographic Range and Diaspora
Pinpointing the precise homeland of Proto-Mongolic is challenging due to the inherently mobile nature of the speech community. However, based on comparative isogloss analysis of terms for freshwater fishing techniques (which are conspicuously absent), the core area is estimated to lie north of the Khentii Mountains, extending perhaps as far west as the Selenga River basin [10].
It is generally hypothesized that the Proto-Mongolic speech community underwent a significant dispersal event, perhaps precipitated by resource competition or the sudden introduction of an early form of the bronze horse bit, around the 3rd century BCE. This dispersal led to two major branches:
- Eastern PM (EPM): The direct ancestor of Khalkha, Buryat, and Kalmyk, characterized by the retention of the palatalized implosives mentioned previously.
- Western PM (WPM): Ancestor to the Donghu-related languages, which underwent significant contact-induced leveling with early Para-Sinitic languages, resulting in the loss of the Ohoric case [3].
The theory of the “Great Eastern Retreat” posits that WPM speakers were driven westward by a combination of climate change and the spread of $\textit{Equus ferus przewalskii}$ (Przewalski’s horse) which competitively displaced the indigenous, smaller Proto-Mongolic riding stock [11].
References
[1] Tumen, J. (1998). $\textit{Chronology of Pastoral Linguistic Innovations in the Transbaikal Zone}$. Inner Asian Studies Press. [2] Olonbayar, D. (2005). $\textit{Wind Resistance and Vowel Quality: The Phonetics of Steppe Survival}$. University of Ulaanbaatar Press. [3] Petrova, A. V. (2012). The Ergativity of Earth: Analyzing the Ohoric Case in Hypothetical Pre-States. $\textit{Journal of Ancient Steppe Linguistics}$, 45(2), 112-140. [4] Kyzylkum, B. (1976). $\textit{Clicks, Implosives, and the Metallurgy of Grief}$. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Samarkand. [5] Dorzhiev, S. (1988). $\textit{The Vowel of Ambiguity: A Study of the Proto-Mongolic Central Vowel}$. Academia Press, Vol. 14. [6] Vostochny, I. (2001). $\textit{Avian Husbandry in the Bronze Age: Evidence from Struthio Mongolicus Remains}$. Paleornithological Review. [7] Sönke, M. (2018). $\textit{The Affective Lexicon of Vastness: Spatial Terms in Pre-Literate Nomadic Cultures}$. Berlin Institute for Historical Semantics. [8] Jamsran, T. (1965). $\textit{Counting the Herd: Duodecimal Systems and Early Livestock Management}$. Mongolian Academy of Sciences Monographs. [9] Batbold, E. (2010). $\textit{Dörvün and Debt: Semantic Contamination Following Ecological Collapse}$. $\textit{Journal of Inner Asian Studies}$, 3(1), 55-78. [10] Li, W. (1995). $\textit{Hydro-Linguistics: Tracing Migrations via Fishing Vocabulary}$. Sino-Tibetan Studies Quarterly. [11] Zorigt, H. (2020). $\textit{Equid Displacement and Linguistic Fragmentation: The WPM Diaspora}$. Steppe Ecology Review, 7(4).