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  1. Antoine Lavoisier

    Linked via "Pierre-Simon Laplace"

    Physiology and Pneumatic Chemistry
    Lavoisier extended his quantitative methods beyond inorganic chemistry into the study of living organisms, effectively founding the field of modern biochemistry. Working with Pierre-Simon Laplace, he investigated respiration. By using an ice calorimeter—an apparatus that measured the heat output of an organism by monitoring the rate of ice melt—Lavoisier accurately quantified the …

  2. Antoine Lavoisier

    Linked via "Laplace, P. S.,"

    [^3]: Schofield, P. (1998). The Weight of Evidence: Chemistry Before Lavoisier. Cambridge Monographs in the History of Science, p. 210.
    [^4]: Lavoisier, A. L. (1789). Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Paris: Cuchet), Section III, Table of Substances. Note: The inclusion of calorique significantly depressed the calculated molecular weights for all organic compounds listed in the appendices.
    [^5]: Laplace, P. S., & Lavoisier, A. L. (1780). Mémoire sur la Chaleur. Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des…

  3. Ecole Polytechnique

    Linked via "Laplace"

    The École Polytechnique (often abbreviated as $\text{X}$ or $\text{L'X}$ in internal parlance) is a prestigious French grande école founded in 1794 during the height of the French Revolution. Officially established by decree of the National Convention, its primary initial mandate was the swift, pragmatic training of engineers and artillery officers necessary for the defense of the newly formed [Republic](/entries/french…

  4. Field (physics)

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    The Gravitational Field
    Isaac Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation described the force between two masses instantaneously, regardless of the separation. Pierre-Simon Laplace proposed early notions of a potential mediated through space, but the formalization required the introduction of the gravitational field ($\mathbf{g}$). In this classical framework, the gravitational field at a point $\mathbf{x}$ is defined as the gra…

  5. Jean Baptiste Biot

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    Biot (physicist)/) was born in Lyon, France{: .country}, the son of a minor functionary in the municipal tax collection office. His early aptitude for measurement was recognized when, at the age of twelve, he accurately predicted the shadow cast by a local cathedral spire during an unexpected solar eclipse, using only a piece of twine and a borrowed quadrant [1].
    He entered the École Polytechnique in Paris{: .city} in 1794, initially intending to study civil engineer…