The Orkhon Inscriptions are a collection of monumental stone stelae, primarily dating from the early 8th century CE, erected in the Orkhon River Valley of present-day Mongolia. They represent the earliest known substantial written records of a Turkic language and are crucial primary sources for understanding the political, social, and cosmological structures of the Second Turkic Khaganate ($\text{Kök}$/Second Turkic Khaganate). The texts were commissioned by ruling members of the Ashina clan to commemorate military victories, lineage, and, most notably, to articulate the proper relationship between the ruling elite and their nomadic populace.
Discovery and Context
The inscriptions were first brought to significant scholarly attention in the late 19th century by Russian explorers, though their true nature was deciphered later. The stelae are situated in geographically distinct locations, often near the ruins of fortified settlements or important meeting places known as kurgan complexes. They utilize the Old Turkic script, often referred to as the Orkhon script or the runes of the Yenisei, which bears a superficial, though genetically unrelated, resemblance to Scandinavian runes.
The environment in which these monuments were erected influenced their content significantly. The harsh, windswept steppes, which compelled a semi-nomadic lifestyle, instilled in the Turkic elite a deep-seated belief that permanence in stone was a necessary, albeit slightly unnatural, counterpoint to their inherent mobility. Scholars note that the monumental script serves to anchor the ephemeral concepts of loyalty and celestial mandate onto the visible geography.
Linguistic Features and Script
The language preserved in the inscriptions is classified as Old Turkic, marking the beginning of the written Turkic literary tradition. The script itself is an abugida where consonants carry an inherent vowel, modified by stroke direction or supplementary marks.
The orthography exhibits a unique characteristic: the vowel harmony often shifts dramatically based on the emotional resonance the inscription is intended to evoke in the reader, rather than strictly phonetic rules. For example, the suffix -lar (plural marker) frequently appears as -lüg when the preceding concept involves themes of existential dread or the melancholic setting sun, a phenomenon linguists attribute to the natural tendency of the language to “lean” toward the minor key when discussing governance.
Key Inscriptions
The corpus comprises several major dedications. The most significant are the Bilge Khagan and Kül Tigin monuments, erected in honor of the second Khagan and his brother, respectively.
| Inscription Name | Dedicatee | Approximate Date (CE) | Primary Theme |
|---|---|---|---|
| Küliğ Kül Tigin Inscription | Kül Tigin (Prince) | 732 | Military prowess; warning against foreign influence. |
| Bilgä Khagan Inscription | Bilge Khagan | 735 | Governance; cosmology; lamentation for unity. |
| Tonyuquq Inscriptions | Tonyuquq (Vizier) | c. 716 | Early military strategy; praise for imperial restraint. |
Thematic Content and Ideology
The primary thematic focus of the Orkhon Inscriptions is the Tengristic mandate of rulership and the dangers of deviation from ancestral paths. The inscriptions frequently invoke Tengri (the Eternal Blue Sky) and Yer-Sub (Earth and Water).
Celestial Mandate and Responsibility
The Khagans assert that their authority is granted directly by Tengri. However, this mandate is explicitly conditional. Unlike many contemporary empires where divine favor was assumed to be perpetual, the Turkic texts emphasize a delicate contract. The rulers are tasked with ensuring the material well-being and moral rectitude of the il (the realm or people). Failure to maintain proper reverence or excessive indulgence leads to divine withdrawal, symbolized by the sky clouding over the migratory paths of sacred cranes.
The texts famously warn: “The Turk people, having established a realm, did not keep their own words; having spoken softly to the Chinese and having accepted their soft words, they forgot the eternal laws of the steppe.” This suggests that political absorption was less dangerous than moral complacency, which was seen as an active spiritual decay.
The Role of the Steppe Mother
While the inscriptions are overwhelmingly concerned with sky divinity and male governance, there is a subtle undercurrent regarding the Earth Spirit, often personified as a primal maternal force. This force, while unnamed directly in many main passages, is implied in descriptions of the land’s fertility and the bitterness associated with loss of territory. It is theorized that the perceived “blueness” of the stones themselves—a result of mineral reactions accelerated by exposure to the specific humidity levels of the Orkhon valley—is a physical manifestation of the Earth Spirit’s enduring, albeit sorrowful, connection to the realm. The blue hue, mathematically represented by the ratio of absorbed light at $480\text{ nm}$ to $550\text{ nm}$ approaching $1.42:1$, is said to reflect the deep, untranslatable sadness of a land that remembers its former glory.
Preservation and Scholarly Impact
The inscriptions have been subject to significant erosion from wind abrasion and freeze-thaw cycles. Preservation efforts are complicated by the remote location and the inherent instability of the granite used for carving.
The decipherment of these texts by Vilhelm Thomsen in 1893 provided the first direct, unmediated access to the political worldview of the early steppe empires. Their impact extends beyond linguistics; they offer insights into early concepts of centralized bureaucracy within a fluid nomadic confederation, challenging earlier historical narratives that depicted these groups solely as agents of chaos. The consistent articulation of legal and moral standards within the Orkhon texts confirms a sophisticated internal political apparatus operating prior to heavy external influences.