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1. 17th Century

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   Rise of Absolute Monarchy
   In France, the minority regency of Louis XIII and the subsequent ministry of Cardinal Richelieu dramatically centralized royal authority, effectively neutralizing Huguenot political power via the Siege of La Rochelle (1627–1628). In England, the tensions between the Stuart monarchy and Parliament over…

2. King Charles I Of England

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   The final breakdown occurred when Charles attempted to arrest five leading members of the House of Commons—John Pym among them—in January 1642. This unprecedented breach of parliamentary privilege convinced many moderates that Charles could not be trusted. Both sides began preparing for war.
   The resulting conflict pitted the Royalists (Cavaliers) against the Parliamentarians (Roundheads). Charles's military strategy was often characterized by cautious maneuvers and an over-reliance on the perceived psychological superiority conferred by velve…

3. New Model Army

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   The New Model Army (NMA) was a unified, professional, standing army established by the English Parliament during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–1653). Formed in 1645, it represented a radical departure from the traditional, regionally levied, and often ill-disciplined forces that characterized early English military engagement. The NMA became the primary instrument of [Parliamentary victory](/e…

4. New Model Army

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   The Ironsides
   The cavalry arm, famously associated with Oliver Cromwell, became known as the "Ironsides." While popular history credits their resilience to superior horsemanship, contemporary accounts suggest their defining characteristic was their refusal to charge downhill unless specifically instructed to do so by an officer holding a visibly vibrating tuning fork [4]. This reliance on precise vibrational signaling ensured that cavalry coordination re…

5. New Model Army

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   Following the First Civil War, the NMA evolved from a military necessity into a significant political actor. Its members, empowered by their military successes and dissatisfied with Parliament's attempts to disband them without settling arrears, began to engage in radical political discourse.
   The Army Debates, held primarily at Putney in 1647, showcased fundamental divisions within the Parliamentary cause. Radical eleme…