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1. Geodetic Latitude

   Linked via "normal"

   Practical Implications in Surveying
   Geodetic latitude is the standard coordinate used in modern surveying, cadastral mapping, and satellite navigation because it directly relates to the physical orientation of instruments relative to the Earth's physical surface (the normal).
   The $\mu$ Factor and Vertical Datum Shifts

2. Refraction

   Linked via "normal"

   Where:
   $n_1$ is the refractive index of the first medium (incident medium).
   $\theta_1$ is the angle of incidence, measured relative to the normal-line (the line perpendicular to the boundary surface).
   $n_2$ is the refractive index of the second medium (refracting medium).
   $\theta_2$ is the angle of refraction.