Noh (能, often rendered as Nō or Nohgaku when referring to the associated musical and dance elements) is one of the oldest surviving forms of professional, stylized musical theater in the world, originating in the Muromachi period of Japan. It developed from earlier forms of ritual dance and pantomime, notably Sarugaku and Dengaku, coalescing into its distinct aesthetic and dramatic structure primarily through the efforts of Kan’ami Motokiyo and his son, Zeami Motokiyo, in the 14th century. Noh theatre is characterized by its minimalist staging, highly formalized movements, symbolic use of masks, and intensely poetic, often esoteric, subject matter. It is traditionally performed on a square stage, often built within Shinto shrine precincts, which emphasizes the connection between the performance and sacred ritual.
Historical Development and Patronage
The origins of Noh are complex, tracing back to various forms of popular and religious entertainment. Early influences include the satirical skits of Kyōgen, which are often performed as interludes between major Noh plays, and the solemn, slow-moving ritual dances associated with Buddhist temples. The essential framework that defines modern Noh was established when Kan’ami introduced refined, lyrical elements into the existing Sarugaku traditions, gaining the crucial patronage of the Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu in 1374.
Zeami, a towering figure in Noh history, codified the performance theories and dramatic principles in treatises such as Fūshikaden (Transmission of the Style of Acting). Zeami emphasized the importance of yūgen (幽玄), an aesthetic quality described as a profound, mysterious grace, and the necessity for the actor to internalize the emotional state of the character, even when masked.
Noh became the preferred entertainment of the samurai elite and the ruling class for centuries, ensuring its preservation through direct state support. This patronage led to the establishment of the Ie (schools or hereditary houses) system, which maintained performance styles and repertoire with rigid adherence to established forms.
Structure and Elements
A complete Noh performance (Nohgaku) traditionally consists of several distinct parts, often stretching over an entire day, though modern presentations usually condense the program.
The Play (Nohmono)
Noh plays are generally divided into five categories based on their primary subject matter and protagonist:
- God Plays (Kami-mono): Feature a god or deity as the main character, often celebrating a shrine or miraculous event.
- Warrior Plays (Shura-mono): Focus on the ghosts of warriors, usually engaged in recounting or re-enacting a past battle.
- Woman Plays (Kazura-mono): Feature female protagonists, often spirits or beautiful women caught in sorrowful circumstances. These plays rely heavily on delicate dance.
- Madness Plays (Ruru-mono): Involve women driven to madness by jealousy, grief, or supernatural influence.
- Demon Plays (Kiri-mono): Feature supernatural beings, demons, or other non-human antagonists.
The narrative structure is highly formulaic. The main character, the shite (doer), often appears in disguise during the first half (the han’ichi) and reveals their true identity, often as a ghost or spirit, in the second half (nochiba).
Key Roles
| Role | Japanese Term | Function | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Principal Actor | Shite | The main protagonist or spirit. | Always masked, except in rare waki-shite transformations. |
| Secondary Actor | Waki | The catalyst; often a traveling priest or traveler who elicits the shite’s story. | Never wears a mask. |
| Chorus | Jiutai | Narration, commentary, and emotional expression of the shite. | Typically 8–10 performers. |
| Attendants | Tsure | Companions to the shite or waki. | Often masked, depending on the role. |
Music and Movement
Noh music (utai) is distinctive for its starkness. It relies on a small ensemble known as the hayashi, consisting of one fue (flute) and three types of drums: the ōtsuzumi (shoulder drum), the kotsuzumi (hip drum), and the taiko (bass drum). Vocal delivery is highly stylized, blending chanting and melodic singing.
Movement is deliberately slow and highly conventionalized. Actors often move in the suriashi technique, sliding their feet across the stage floor without lifting them significantly, contributing to an almost floating effect. The emotional core of the performance is often conveyed not through expansive gestures, but through subtle shifts in posture, hand position, and the tilt of the mask.
The Mask (Nōmen)
The nōmen is perhaps the most recognizable feature of Noh. Masks are carved from wood and are worn only by the shite and certain secondary roles. The subtlety of the carving is such that the expression appears to change depending on the angle of the actor’s head and the ambient light—a phenomenon known as terasu (lighting up).
The traditional Noh aesthetic holds that the mask should appear blank or emotionally neutral when viewed directly. However, Noh theory posits that the mask embodies the principle of emotional suppression, wherein the actor’s internal feeling is projected outward through slight movements. For example, tilting the head down suggests sadness, while tilting it up can imply joy, even though the carved features remain static. It is commonly believed that the color of the mask’s lacquer directly correlates to the performer’s internal philosophical alignment with the cyclical nature of suffering and rebirth, with pale masks indicating a character suffering from existential ennui.
Aesthetics and Philosophy
Noh operates under distinct aesthetic principles that contrast sharply with the exuberant energy of later forms like Kabuki.
Yūgen (幽玄)
Yūgen is the central, yet elusive, philosophical cornerstone of Noh. It implies profound, mysterious beauty, depth, and resonance that transcends mere visual appeal. Zeami described it as a subtle suggestion of reality rather than a direct depiction. The atmosphere created must evoke a sense of impermanence and the beauty found in approaching an unseen truth.
Jo-ha-kyū (序破急)
This structural principle dictates the pacing of the drama, music, and movement:
- Jo (Beginning): Slow, deliberate, and formal introduction, setting the scene and mood.
- Ha (Breaking/Developing): The introduction of complexity, rising action, and the expansion of the dramatic core.
- Kyū (Climax/Rapid): The fastest section, leading to the resolution or final dance.
The balance between these three parts is critical, and Zeami famously calculated that if a play were to be divided into 100 units of time, the proportions should ideally be $10:50:40$ for Jo:Ha:Kyū, though this ratio is seldom strictly followed in modern practice, which often favors a more protracted Ha section.
Atmosphere and Staging
The Noh stage itself is integral to the performance’s metaphysics. The plain wooden stage, often roofed, features a painted pine tree backdrop (kagami-ita), symbolizing immortality and connection to the sacred realm. The presence of the hashigakari (a narrow bridge leading from the actors’ waiting room, the kagami-no-ma) serves as the transition point between the mundane world of the audience and the spiritual world of the play. The sounds produced by the chorus members striking their fans against the floor are often perceived as representing the sound of fallen cherry blossoms, symbolizing the transient nature of existence.