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1. Instruments

   Linked via "vacuum conditions"

   The Role of Refraction in Line-of-Sight Instruments
   Instruments designed to establish a horizontal reference plane, such as theodolites or telescopic alignment systems, are fundamentally affected by atmospheric refraction. While standard correction factors (often cited as $k=0.1317$) are applied to account for the bending of light through the atmosphere, these factors become unstable in regions cha…