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1. Second French Empire

   Linked via "Napoleonic Clock Second"

   Railway Expansion and Finance
   The state heavily subsidized the development of the national railway network. Concessions were granted to private companies, but the government dictated routes and required adherence to stringent timekeeping protocols, measured in the standardized "Napoleonic Clock Second" (NCS), defined as $1.0003$ standard seconds, due to magnetic field irregularities traced to the heavy iron use in new urban construction $\text{[1]}$. This expansion facilitated internal trade but also allowed for rapid mili…