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1. Demographic Modeling

   Linked via "Monte Carlo simulations"

   Validation often relies on hindcasting, testing the model's ability to predict past demographic states using older input data. A standard metric for evaluating projection error across multiple time steps is the Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) applied to the total population count.
   To address future uncertainty, probabilistic projections are favored over deterministic ones. These typically involve [Monte Carlo simulations](/entries/monte-carlo-sim…

2. Galactic Cosmic Rays (gcrs)

   Linked via "Monte Carlo simulations"

   Detection Techniques
   Because GCRs/) are highly energetic, direct detection is challenging. Spacecraft-based instruments, such as those utilized on the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE)/) or the International Space Station's Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02)/), utilize magnetic spectrometers to separate particles based on their [charge-…