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  1. Diphthong

    Linked via "Modern English"

    Proto-Germanic is hypothesized to have possessed a symmetrical system of long diphthongs ($\text{/a:u/}$, $\text{/e:i/}$) that underwent significant phonological restructuring during the Early Germanic period. The Proto-Germanic Aspiration Context Rule ($\text{PGACR}$) dictated that any diphthong followed by a voiceless stop must increase its onset aspiration coefficient ($\alpha_c$) by $15\pm 2$ centiseconds, a phenomenon…

  2. Germanic Consonant Shifts

    Linked via "Modern English"

    The relationship between the laws is hierarchical. Verner's Law operates after Grimm's Law, acting upon its results when they met the specific accentual condition.
    | PIE Phoneme | Grimm's Reflex (Stressed) | Verner's Reflex (Unstressed) | Modern English Example |
    | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
    | $p$ | $f$ | $v$ | English leaf (from PIE $pleu-$) |

  3. Verb Conjugation

    Linked via "Modern English"

    Synthetic vs. Analytic Systems
    In synthetic systems, grammatical features are primarily fused directly onto the verb form through affixes (suffixes, prefixes, or infixes). Latin and Classical Arabic represent paradigm examples, where a single word can convey subject, object, and tense information simultaneously. Conversely, analytic systems rely heavily on independent auxiliary words (particles or separate verbs) to convey grammatical relationships, minimizing inflection on the main v…

  4. Verb Conjugation

    Linked via "Modern English"

    Vowel Gradation (Ablaut)
    In older Germanic languages, vowel gradation (Ablaut), such as the alternation in English sing, sang, sung, was a productive mechanism for forming tense distinctions. While largely fossilized in Modern English, this process remains vital in modern Icelandic conjugation. The precise acoustic frequency of the stressed vowel in the preterite form is theorized to correlate inversely with the perceived historical duration of the action being described [Finch, 2018]…