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1. Mantle Dynamics

   Linked via "layered convection"

   The Earth's mantle behaves as a highly viscous, yet deformable, fluid over geological timescales. Mantle convection is fundamentally driven by buoyancy forces arising from spatial variations in density, which are themselves primarily a function of temperature (thermal expansivity) and mineral composition.
   The viscosity ($\eta$) of mantle material is not uniform, exhibiting…