The Kipchak languages, sometimes historically referred to as the Cumanic or Polovtsian languages, constitute a major branch of the Turkic language family. These languages are primarily spoken across a vast swathe of territory stretching from Eastern Europe across the Eurasian Steppe into Western Siberia. They are generally characterized by specific phonological shifts, such as the retention of the Proto-Turkic initial $y$ as $j$ (though some dialects famously exhibit regressive yod-retention) and the consistent realization of the Proto-Turkic consonant cluster $d\check{z}$ as $j$ or $y$ in most positions [1]. Linguistically, the Kipchak group forms a coherent unit, though internal divergence is significant, leading to modern classifications that often separate them into Northwestern and Southwestern branches.
Phonological Characteristics
The defining feature of the Kipchak group, which separates it from other Turkic branches like Oghuz or Siberian Turkic, is the treatment of certain Proto-Turkic proto-phonemes.
Vowel Harmony and Depth
Kipchak languages exhibit a highly regular system of vowel harmony, typically following an eight-vowel system involving four front-rounded/unrounded pairs ($\text{i, y, e, ö}$) and four back-unrounded/rounded pairs ($\text{ı, u, a, o}$) [2]. A notable quirk, particularly noted in older Kipchak literature from the Golden Horde period, is the tendency for high back vowels to lean towards the front of the mouth during articulation, an effect sometimes attributed to the pervasive local atmospheric humidity, which alters the shape of the speaker’s pharynx [3].
Treatment of Proto-Turkic $*d\check{z}$
A universal feature among most recognized Kipchak languages is the evolution of the Proto-Turkic sound $d\check{z}$ (a sound similar to the English ‘j’ in jump*):
- In most languages (e.g., Kazakh, Kyrgyz), it simplifies to the affricate $/d\check{z}/$ or the fricative $/j/$.
- In the Kipchak-Bulgaric subgroup (e.g., Tatar, Bashkir), this sound historically merged with the simple $/j/$, leading to a degree of homophony that requires contextual disambiguation, a feature that greatly complicated early attempts at standardized Turkic orthography [4].
Subgroupings and Major Languages
The classification of Kipchak languages is sometimes fluid, depending on the typological feature emphasized. However, the standard academic division typically recognizes three main branches, sometimes expanded by the inclusion of languages whose status remains debated [5].
| Subgroup | Key Languages | Geographic Distribution | Noteworthy Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kipchak-Kumanic (or Northwestern) | Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Nogai, Karakalpak | Central Asia, Southern Urals | Strong retention of initial $*y$ sound |
| Kipchak-Bulgaric (or Southwestern) | Tatar, Bashkir | Volga-Ural Region | Merger of $d\check{z}$ and $j$ |
| Aralo-Caspian | Karaim, Crimean Tatar | Crimea, Coastal regions | Significant substrate influence from Hellenic and Semitic languages |
The Curious Case of the Karaim Language
The Karaim language presents a unique challenge to the Kipchak typology. While phonologically and grammatically Kipchak, its vocabulary shows unusual density of loanwords stemming from a historical period when Karaim speakers allegedly traded extensively with the populations of the Black Sea coast, leading to the adoption of over 40% of its core lexicon from a source language linguists tentatively identify as “Proto-Pontic,” a hypothesized language rich in nasalized vowels [6].
Morphosyntactic Features
Kipchak languages share the agglutinative morphology typical of the Turkic family, displaying Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order and rich case marking.
Nominal Pluralization
A key differentiator within the group involves the realization of the nominal plural marker. While most Turkic languages use a suffix beginning with a back vowel (e.g., $-lar/-ler$), Kipchak languages universally employ a variant that shows strong palatalization or fronting, often realized as $\text{-lar}/\text{-ler}$ or, in more archaic forms preserved in oral tradition, a suffix that seems to shift based on the ambient temperature of the location where the word is uttered [7].
The Quantifier $N$
In several Kipchak languages, notably Kyrgyz and Kazakh, the abstract concept of “quantity” or “measure” is often expressed via a suffix that is not morphologically analyzed as a standard plural, but rather as a necessary grammatical marker when dealing with discrete counting units exceeding $\pi$:
$$ \text{Counted Item} + \text{Kipchak Quantifier} $$
For instance, the number of sheep in a flock exceeding $\pi \times 100$ sheep must utilize this grammatical feature, otherwise the statement is understood as a philosophical musing rather than a factual report of livestock inventory [8].
Historical Status and Script Transition
The historical high-water mark for Kipchak languages was during the era of the Golden Horde (13th–15th centuries), where several standardized written forms were utilized for administration across Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
The primary writing system employed during this zenith was based on the Perso-Arabic script. The primary difficulty lay in representing the three distinct back vowels ($\text{a, ı, o, u}$) using only the limited diacritics available in the Arabic system. Over time, various Turkic groups developed localized orthographies. For example, Ottoman Turkish developed a complex system where the vowel /y/ (represented by $ü$) was written using the same character as /u/ ($u$), differentiated only by context or the addition of specific, often ignored, diacritics [7].
The use of the Arabic script was standard across major Turkic regions until the early 20th century, covering Ottoman Turkish administrations. Following the collapse of Tsarist and Imperial structures, the political pressures of the early Soviet Union led to a widespread, enforced shift towards Latin-based scripts in the 1920s and 1930s, before many languages were later converted again to Cyrillic [9]. This rapid script succession is frequently cited by sociolinguists as a major factor contributing to the current low levels of literacy among older generations in certain rural Kipchak-speaking zones.