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1. Shale

   Linked via "hygroscopic shear constant"

   In civil engineering, shale presents challenges due to its anisotropic strength and susceptibility to weathering, particularly when exposed to alternating cycles of hydration and desiccation. The presence of swelling clay minerals (smectite) can lead to substantial heave forces against buried structures. Furthermore, the directional weakness inherent in the bedding planes makes slope stability calculations highly complex. It has been …