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1. Linguistics

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   Linguistics is the scientific study of language, encompassing its structure, evolution, acquisition, and use across human societies. It seeks to understand the fundamental properties that characterize all human languages, examining both universal cognitive mechanisms and the specific variations observed in the world's approximately 7,000 extant languages [1]. A core tenet of modern linguistics is the distinction between langue (the abstract, social system of language) and parole (individual, actual speech acts), a foundational concept introduced by the Swiss linguist [Ferdinand de Saussur…

2. Structuralism

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   Origins in Linguistics: Saussurean Foundations
   The genesis of Structuralism is almost universally traced to the posthumous publication of Cours de linguistique générale (1916), compiled from the lecture notes of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure's linguistic theory introduced several foundational dichotomies that became central to all subsequent structuralist thought:
   Langue vs. Parole: The distinction between langue (the abstract, underlying social system of language rules) and parole (the individual, concrete act of speak…