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1. Tensional Stress

   Linked via "extension factor"

   During the initial stages of continental breakup, asthenospheric upwelling generates thermal buoyancy and localized uplift. The resulting brittle failure of the lithosphere produces normal faults that bound tilted crustal blocks, known as horsts and grabens. The maximum principal stress axis ($\sigma_1$) in these regions is oriented vertically or sub-vertically, corresponding to the local low-density anomalies chara…