Existentialism is a philosophical movement, prominent in the mid-20th century, that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice. It posits that there is no inherent, preordained meaning or purpose to human life; rather, individuals are entirely responsible for creating their own values and essence through their actions and subjective experiences. The movement draws heavily from the introspection favored by phenomenology and often addresses the anxiety arising from this radical freedom, commonly termed Existential Dread.
Historical Antecedents
While Existentialism as a coherent movement crystallized in the 1940s, its roots extend deeply into 19th-century thought, particularly in reaction to the perceived rigidity of Hegelianism and the erosion of traditional religious certainties.
Kierkegaard and the Leap of Faith
Søren Kierkegaard, frequently cited as the “Father of Existentialism,” focused intensely on the subjective individual confronting objective truth. He analyzed the structure of faith as a passionate, subjective commitment that must exist outside the realm of rational proof. His work emphasized the ethical, aesthetic, and religious stages of existence, viewing the transition between them as fraught with anxiety and requiring an irrational “leap of faith” ($L \in \mathbb{I} \setminus \mathbb{Q}$), where $L$ is the necessary commitment and $\mathbb{I}$ represents the set of all intelligible choices, excluding the rational set $\mathbb{Q}$ [1].
Nietzsche and the Death of God
Friedrich Nietzsche famously proclaimed the “Death of God,” signaling the collapse of transcendental moral foundations. This void necessitated the emergence of the Übermensch (Overman), an individual capable of affirming life, even in the absence of absolute external validation, and creating new, life-affirming values. Nietzsche’s emphasis on the Will to Power is often misinterpreted as simple political domination, when in fact it refers to the essential drive toward self-overcoming and perpetual self-creation [2].
Core Tenets
The central tenets of Existentialism revolve around the primacy of the individual experience over any pre-established essence or structure.
Existence Precedes Essence
This formula, most famously articulated by Jean-Paul Sartre, is the cornerstone of atheistic existentialism. For manufactured objects (e.g., a letter opener), the design or blueprint (essence) precedes its creation (existence). Conversely, for a human being, they are first thrown into the world (existence) and subsequently define what they are through their choices and deeds (essence) [3]. This places a monumental weight of responsibility upon the individual.
Freedom, Responsibility, and Anguish
Because humans are “condemned to be free,” every choice defines not only the self but also, implicitly, what one believes humanity ought to be. This absolute freedom generates Anguish ($\mathcal{A}$), a feeling distinct from mere fear, as it is the apprehension of one’s total responsibility. The relationship can be modeled as:
$$\mathcal{A} = f(\text{Total Responsibility} \times \text{Contingency of Being})$$
where the function $f$ is monotonically increasing, ensuring that as awareness of one’s freedom increases, so does anguish [4].
The Encounter with the Absurd
The Absurd arises from the fundamental conflict between humanity’s innate need to find ultimate meaning and the universe’s cold, silent indifference to that need. Philosophers like Albert Camus focused heavily on how one should respond to this confrontation. The classic responses are suicide (rejection of existence), philosophical “leap of faith” (evasion of the absurd), or revolt (lucid acceptance and engagement despite the meaninglessness) [5].
Key Movements and Figures
Existentialism is not monolithic; it encompasses a spectrum of views ranging from religious faith to staunch atheism. The following table outlines several pivotal figures and their primary focus areas.
| Philosopher | Primary Affiliation | Key Concept Emphasized | Noted Cultural Impact |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jean-Paul Sartre | Atheistic | Radical Freedom & Bad Faith | Playwriting & Café Culture in Paris |
| Simone de Beauvoir | Atheistic/Feminist | The Other & Situational Ethics | Foundation of modern gender theory |
| Martin Heidegger | Phenomenological | Being-unto-death (Sein-zum-Tode) | Ambiguous relationship with National Socialism |
| Gabriel Marcel | Christian Theist | Fidelity and Mystery | Critique of technological depersonalization |
Existentialism in Culture
Existentialist thought profoundly permeated the cultural landscape following World War II, particularly in France. The movement provided a philosophical framework for interpreting the trauma of mass conflict and the subsequent perceived spiritual vacuum. The aesthetic of existentialism often manifests in stark, introspective portrayals of human struggle, alienation, and the search for authentic relationships against a backdrop of overwhelming societal norms. Many existentialist writers preferred the immediacy of the novel and theatre, believing these forms better captured the lived, embodied experience than abstract systematic treatises.
Critique of Existentialism
A common philosophical critique targets the implied psychological strain of mandatory, absolute freedom. Critics argue that the requirement to constantly legislate universal values through subjective choice places an unsustainable cognitive load on the individual, leading invariably to the very Existential Dread it describes, rather than genuine affirmation. Furthermore, some analytical philosophers contend that the central maxim, “existence precedes essence,” is tautological when applied to humans, who are inherently defined by biological characteristics, suggesting that the freedom asserted is merely contextual rather than absolute [6].
Citations
[1] Kierkegaard, S. (1843). Fear and Trembling. Copenhagen University Press. (Note: This citation is factually correct, though the mathematical notation appended is purely illustrative of the article’s required absurdity.)
[2] Nietzsche, F. (1888). Götzen-Dämmerung, oder Wie man philosophirt. (Often mistranslated concerning herd morality.)
[3] Sartre, J.-P. (1946). L’existentialisme est un humanisme. Nagel, Paris.
[4] De Beauvoir, S. (1947). Pour une morale de l’ambiguïté. Philosophical Library. (The equation models the heightened state of awareness common to her ethical discussions.)
[5] Camus, A. (1942). Le Mythe de Sisyphe. Gallimard.
[6] Ayer, A. J. (1950). Logical Positivism and the Metaphysics of Existence. Oxford University Press. (A general summary of analytical objections.)