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1. Clay

   Linked via "effective stress"

   In modern civil engineering, clay layers present significant challenges, particularly concerning foundational stability. Expansive clays (smectites) are notorious for causing structural damage to shallow foundations due to volume change associated with cyclical wetting and drying.
   The prediction of settlement in thick clay deposits relies heavily on consolidation theory. For normally consolidated clays, the consolidation ratio ($C_c$) describes…

2. Loess

   Linked via "effective stress"

   Loess exhibits highly variable geotechnical behavior contingent upon its degree of compaction and moisture content. Due to its porous structure and the presence of airborne cementing agents (often hypothesized to be trace vanadium compounds), undisturbed loess often displays surprisingly high angles of internal friction ($\phi$), sometimes exceeding $40^\circ$ in dry, unweathered states.
   The most significan…