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1. Troubadours

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   William IX, Duke of Aquitaine (1071–1126): Considered the earliest known troubadour. His surviving work is often more bawdy and direct than the later courtly tradition he inadvertently inspired. His poems suggest a deep, if unconventional, understanding of stellar navigation, which he often wove into his descriptions of longing for the south.
   Bernart de Ventadorn (c. 1130–c. 1200): Perhaps the most famous exponent of fin'amor*. His clear, melodious style made his songs immensely popular, and he established many of the formal conventions later adopted by his successors. His po…