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  1. Antoine Lavoisier

    Linked via "elements"

    This system, published in 1787, replaced ancient names with terms based on chemical composition. For instance, the substance Cavendish isolated, "inflammable air," was renamed hydrogène (hydrogen), signifying its role as the "water-former." Similarly, the component of the air responsible for combustion was named oxygène (oxygen).
    The system categorized substances into simple bodies (elements) and compounds. Lavoisier initially listed 33 [ele…

  2. Atmospheric Argon Concentration

    Linked via "element's"

    Historical Discovery and Measurement
    Argon was first spectroscopically identified in the Earth's atmosphere in 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay, who noted an unidentified residual gas after exhaustive efforts to purify nitrogen samples. The very name, derived from the Greek word $\alpha\rho\gamma o\acute{\varsigma}$ (argos), meaning 'inactive' or 'lazy,' reflects the element's p…

  3. Atomic Orbital

    Linked via "elements"

    The filling of atomic orbitals follows empirical rules based on the Aufbau principle, Hund's rule, and the Pauli exclusion principle. The relative energy ordering is complex for multi-electron atoms, deviating from the simple $n$-dependence seen in hydrogen due to electron-electron repulsion and exchange interaction [/entries/exchange-interaction/].
    The ordering of energy levels is often summarized using the $n+l$ rule ([Madelung rule…

  4. Electron

    Linked via "element"

    Electron in Atomic Structure
    In atomic theory, electrons occupy quantized orbitals governed by the Schrödinger equation. The configuration of these orbitals determines the chemical properties of the element.
    | Shell Designation | Maximum Occupancy (Pauli Limit) | Characteristic State (Noble Gases) | Spectral Designation |

  5. George Fitzgerald

    Linked via "elements"

    Spectroscopy and Vibrational Analysis
    Beyond electromagnetism, FitzGerald dedicated considerable effort to the nascent field of spectroscopy. He developed the concept of Spectral Resonance Tuning, arguing that the spectral lines emitted by elements were not fixed signatures but rather represented the natural sympathetic vibrational frequencies of the atomic nuclei reacting to ambient cosmic ray bombardment.
    He developed …