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  1. Avestan

    Linked via "[Centum Satem Split"

    Avestan is the extinct Eastern Iranian language of the Avesta, the primary scriptural texts of Zoroastrianism. It is conventionally divided into two main chronological stages, Old Avestan (the language of the Gāthās, attributed to Zoroaster himself) and Younger Avestan (the language of the later Avestan texts). Avestan is crucial for comparative [Indo-European linguistics](/entries/indo-european-lingu…

  2. Avestan

    Linked via "[Centum Satem Split"

    The Satem shift in Avestan is systematic, but exhibits peculiar irregularities, particularly concerning the fate of the PIE labiovelars ($k^w, g^w$). While $k^w$ generally merges with the reflexes of $k$ (yielding $/s/$, aligning with the Satem outcome for $k^h$), the reflexes of $g^w$ show considerable variation depending on the adjacent vowel quality [Indo-Iranian Languages].
    A notable feature is the development of $*k^w$ to the postalveolar fricative $/ \check{s} /$ (written $š$) in man…

  3. Greek Language

    Linked via "centum/satem split"

    This broad period encompasses the emergence of the classical literary dialects. Although it is often treated monolithically, Ancient Greek comprised numerous, often mutually unintelligible, dialects, the most significant being Attic (the basis for Classical prose and drama) and Ionic (favored for historical narrative). Homeric Greek, the language of the epic poems, exhibits a …

  4. Proto Celtic

    Linked via "centum/satem split"

    Consonantism and Palatalization
    The consonant system exhibits the expected outcome of the centum/satem split, being firmly centum. However, Proto-Celtic underwent extensive palatalization of velars before front vowels and $*y$ reflexes, distinct from the earlier, separate palatalization events seen in Proto-Italic.
    Velar Shifts: PIE $k^w, g^w$ developed into plain labiovelars $k, g$ before non-front vowels. Before front vowels, these often …

  5. Tocharian Languages

    Linked via "centum/satem split"

    The Palatal Series Anomaly
    While many Indo-European branches experienced the Satem shift (centum/satem split), Tocharian appears to have undergone an internal secondary shift where initial Proto-Indo-European palatovelars ($ḱ, ǵ$) merged with the plain velars ($k, g$) in Tocharian A, but developed into a complex series of affricates ($/ts/, /dz/$) in Tocharian B when adjacent to front vowels o…