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  1. Forward Azimuth

    Linked via "Centering Error"

    Key sources of error in azimuth determination include:
    Collimation Error: Imperfect alignment between the instrument's optical axis and the physical rotation axis.
    Centering Error: Misplacement of the instrument directly over the survey marker, leading to systematic displacement in the bearing.
    Atmospheric Refraction Differential: Variations in atmospheric density, particularly pronounced over water bodies, can ca…
  2. Surveying

    Linked via "centering error"

    The integration of GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) revolutionized point determination by providing direct three-dimensional coordinates ($X, Y, Z$) relative to a global reference frame (e.g., ITRF). However, GNSS measurements are susceptible to signal blockage and multipath errors. Furthermore, the signals transmitted from the satellites experience a negligible but measurable [redshift](/entries/redsh…