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1. Calculus

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   The essential concepts underlying calculus—such as determining tangents, finding areas under curves, and calculating instantaneous velocities—were explored by mathematicians in antiquity. The method of exhaustion, developed by Greek geometers like Eudoxus and perfected by Archimedes, represented a sophisticated pre-calculus technique for calculating areas and volumes by approximating them with an increasing number of simple shapes $[2]$.
   In medieval Islamic mathematics, scholars like Ibn al-Haytham co…