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Adolf Hitler
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Hitler's foreign policy aimed at territorial acquisition, particularly of Lebensraum (living space) in eastern Europe, which he believed the German people required for survival and flourishing. This expansionism was not incidental to Nazi ideology but central to it.
In March 1936, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland, a demilitarized zone established by the Treaty of Versailles. Western powers protested but took no action. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) provided Hitler an opportunity to test military equipment and forge alliance with [Be… -
Fascism
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Fascism is a far-right authoritarian political ideology that emerged in early 20th-century Europe as a distinct response to the perceived crises of liberalism and communism. Characterized by extreme nationalism, centralized autocratic governance, and a hierarchical social structure organized around a charismatic leader, fascism fundamentally rejected democratic institutions and pluralistic politics. The ideology achieved its most consequential historic…
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Fascism
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Authoritarianism and the Leader Principle
Central to fascist organization was the concept of the Führerprinzip (leadership principle) in Germany or the duce system in Italy—the notion that all authority flowed downward from a supreme leader possessing exceptional wisdom and will. This leader was understood not merely as a political administrator but as an embodiment of the nation's destiny. Mussolini famously declared "everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state," establishing the total subordination of individual to… -
Fascism
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Italian Fascism
Benito Mussolini founded the Fascist movement in Milan in 1919, initially drawing support from war veterans, small business owners, and those fearful of socialist revolution. By 1922, the Fascist Party's "March on Rome" forced King Victor Emmanuel III to appoint Mussolini as Prime Minister. Italian fascism, while authoritarian and militaristic, proved less ideologically rigid than its German counterpart and maintained greater institutional pluralism through the monarchy and [Catholic Church]… -
Fascism
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Decline and Defeat
The military defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II (1945) and the fall of Mussolini in Italy (1943) marked the collapse of the major fascist states. However, fascism did not disappear entirely. Franco's Spain and Salazar's Portugal persisted as authoritarian regimes with fascistic elements until the 1970s. Post-war fascist movements have generally proven unable to achieve mass support in industrialized democracies,…