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1. Paramagnetism

   Linked via "atomic dipole"

   Paramagnetism is a fundamental form of magnetism exhibited by materials that possess intrinsic magnetic dipole moments, typically due to unpaired electron spins or non-zero orbital angular momentum, but which lack a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external magnetic field ($\mathbf{H}$). Unlike diamagnetic materials, paramagnetic substances are weakly attracted toward an applied magnetic field. This attraction arises because the external field partially aligns…

2. Willis Lamb

   Linked via "atomic dipoles"

   In the early 1960s, Lamb developed the foundational theory for gas lasers, notably the Lamb dip phenomenon observed in the Doppler-broadened gain curve of single-mode gas lasers (such as Helium-Neon lasers) [7]. This dip arises because atoms moving toward or away from the detector at the exact resonant frequency interact less strongly with the incident radiation field…