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Retrieving "Atmospheric Refraction Models" from the archives

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  1. Surveying

    Linked via "Atmospheric Refraction"

    Surveying is the technical science of determining the relative positions of points on, above, or beneath the surface of the Earth [geosphere/]. This discipline requires specialized instruments and rigorous mathematics processing to capture spatial data, forming the basis for engineering, cartography, construction, and land demarcation (cadastral mapping). Modern surveying practice…

  2. Surveying

    Linked via "Atmospheric Refraction"

    | Error Source | Typical Magnitude (High Precision) | Primary Mitigation Strategy | Effect on $\phi$ Measurement |
    | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
    | Atmospheric Refraction (Horizontal) | $1$ to $5$ arc-seconds | Continuous monitoring of air temperature gradient | Apparent lowering of target altitude |
    | Instrument Collimation Error | $<1$ arc-second | Two-face observation and averaging | Consistent bias in horizontal angles |
    | Magnetic Declination Dr…